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Critical Pedagogy: Where are we now?
The question comes from the recent book edited by Peter McLaren and Joe L. Kincheloe (2007) which asks where critical pedagogy's future lies. Long before critical pedagogy found a stage in the theatres of educational thought, revolutionary thinkers penned manuscripts igniting political movements that brought about social change, contributed to educational philosophy, and in some cases, led to their own imprisonment. Henry Giroux first used the term critical pedagogy in his 1983 publication of Theory and Resistance in Education, which is worth quoting at length:
Unlike Bourdieu, Marcuse believes that historically conditioned needs that function in the interest of domination can be changed. That is, in Marcuse's view (1955) any viable form of political action must begin with a notion of political education in which a new language, qualitatively different social relations, and a new set of values would have to operate with the purpose of creating a new environment "in which the non-aggressive, erotic, receptive faculties of man, in harmony with the consciousness of freedom, strive for the pacification of man and nature" (Marcuse, 1969). Thus the notion of depth psychology developed by the Frankfurt School not only provides new insights into how subjectivities are formed or how ideology functions as lived experience, it also provides theoretical tools to establish the conditions for new needs, new systems of values, and new social practices that thake seriously the imperatives of a critical pedagogy. (p. 40)
Giroux further poses the argument, “Theories of resistance become useful when they concretely provide ways in which to articulate knowledge to practical effects mediated by the imperatives of social justice and uphold forms of education capable of expanding the meaning of critical citizenship and the relations of democratic public life” (p. xxiv). Such theories, when implemented by the critical pedagogue, are most pertinent to learning practices that seek to re-empower students by engaging them in modes of transformative social action. The learning practices informed by the language, practices and research of critical pedagogy may transform students’ feelings of disenfranchisement and marginalization into emancipatory feelings, which often lead students to free interactions with their environments and critical reflection upon their own methods of knowledge construction as well as the methods employed by those around them (Kincheloe, 2001). The philosophical principles of critical pedagogy culminate in an unfixed set of heterogeneous ideas without a formula for universal implementation in schools and society (Apple, 1999, p. 172). These principles draw from the works of Dewey, Marx, Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, Freire, Gramsci, Foucault and many others.
Paulo Freire's concept of conscientization or "critical consciousness" is fundamental to a theory of critical pedagogy and involves the ability to pose questions that make problematic forms of knowledge deemed "normal" or innocuous through the use of discourses that leave the social, cultural, economic, and political contexts of such knowledge unexamined. In his dialogue with Donaldo Macedo republished from Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 65, No. 3 (Fall, 1995) in Breaking free: The transformative power of critical pedagogy, Freire (1999) asserts:
The role of an educator who is pedagogically and critically radical is to avoid being indifferent, a characteristic of the facilitator who promotes a laissez-faire education. The radical educator has to be an active presence in educational practice. But, educators should never allow their active and curious presence to transform the learners' presence into a shadow of the educator's presence. Nor can educators be a shadow of their learners. The educator who dares to teach has to stimulate learners to live a critically conscious presence in the pedagogical and historical process (p. 202).
Pepi Leistyna and Arlie Woodrum (1999) write:
Critical pedagogy, on the other hand, while widely misunderstood and misinterpreted, challenges us to recognize, engage, and critique (so as to transform) any existing undemocratic social practices and institutional structures that produce and sustain inequalities and oppressive social identities and relations. While this type of work has been influential across the social sciences, its vast literature and history have often been superficially dismissed within schools of education as being too ideological and too opaque, as offering simplistic "big bang" solutions. As a result, teacher education programs and policies, as well as educational research and classroom practices, are largely bereft of the dialogue, insights, and contributions that such perspectives offer (p. 2).
In her preface to Critical Pedagogy: Where are we now? edited by Peter McLaren and Joe L. Kincheloe, Shirley R. Steinberg (2007) writes:
Answering the question, I would say that wherever we are now, we are being insubordinate - at least I hope so. Refusing to compromise to the standards-wielding, neo-liberal, pedagogical pundits, the contributors gathered in this book are engaged in a pedagogy of insubordination. Insubordination borne by the fact that we have been pedagogically violated by conservatives, liberals, quasi-critical pedagogues, and just about everyone else who just doesn't get it. And therein, lies the proverbial rub: there is not it. Critical pedagogy isn't formulaic, it isn't stagnant, and it isn't an is. I believe it is what it isn't. Critical pedagogy is not guided by do-gooders, not guided by liberal groupies, or rayon-clad teachers who want to save needing students from pedagogies of prescription, administration, state standards or even the latest flashdance pedagogical method. Critical pedagogy can be theoretically-based scholarship, grounded in the understanding of the origins and underpinnings of power within society and in the fabric of schooling. Critical pedagogy has the right to be angry, and to express anger, anger at the uses of power and at injustices through the violations of human rights. Critical pedagogy isn't a talk - liberals talk. Critical pedagogy takes language from the radical - radicals must do (p. ix).
Steinberg's fervent message frames the theoretical, pedagogical, and political dimensions of critical pedagogy as a refusal to "dumb down to the essentialist comments of scholars past" that critiqued critical pedagogy as "a deficit of critical theory and pedagogy," and demanding rigorous scholarship drawing heavily from "social theories, literary criticism, philosophy, and pedagogy in order to clarify itself" (p. x).
Major Influences
Several notable twentieth century educators and activists influenced and in some cases contributed to the body of research and literature of Critical Pedagogy including John Dewey, Myles Horton, Jonathan Kozol, Michael Apple, W.E.B. Dubois, Martin Luther King, Jr., Paulo Freire, and Augusto Boal, The Frankfurt School of critical theorists developed a unified approach to cultural criticism and seminal contribution to the work of Critical Pedagogy, including Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Jurgen Habermas, Walter Benjamin, Erich Fromm, Leo Lowenthal, and others.
In Chapter Two: The Foundations of Critical Pedagogy of Critical Pedagogy: A Primer, Joe L. Kincheloe (2004) writes:
In its beginnings, Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, and Herbert Marcuse initiated a conversation with the German tradition of philosophical and social thought, especially that of Marx, Kant, Hegel, and Weber. From the vantage point of these critical theorists, whose political sensibilities were influenced by the devastations of World War I, postwar Germany with its economic depression marked by inflation and unemployment, and the failed strikes and protests in Germany and Central Europe in this same period, the world was in urgent need of reinterpretation. From this perspective, they defied Marxist orthodoxy while deepening their belief that injustice and subjugation shape the lived world (Bottomore, 1984; Gibson, 198; Held, 1980; Jay, 1973). Focusing their attention on the changing nature of capitalism, the early critical theorists analyzed the mutating forms of domination that accompanied this change (Agger, 1992; Gall, Gall, & Borg, 1999; Giroux, 1983, 1997; Kellner, 1989; Kincheloe, 2001; Kincheloe and Pinar, 1991; McLaren, 1997).
[...] In this context, it is important to note that a social theory is a map or a guide to the social sphere. A social theory should not determine how we see the world but should help us devise questions and strategies for exploring it. A critical social theory is concerned in particular with issues of power and justice and the ways that the economy, matters of race, class, and gender, ideologies, discourses, education, relation and other social instructions and cultural dynamics interact to construct a social system (Beck-Gernsheim, Butler, and Puigvert, 203; Flecha, Gomez, and Puigvert, 2003). Critical theory--in the spirit of an evolving critical pedagogy--is always evolving, changing in light of both new theoretical insights and new problems and social circumstances. (pp. 46-49)
Notable Contributors
Several more scholars contributed to the emergence of critical pedagogy including Stanley Aronowitz, Henry Giroux, Michael Apple, bell hooks, Donaldo Macedo, Peter McLaren, Ira Shor, Joe L. Kincheloe, Deborah Britzman, Patti Lather, Shirley R. Steinberg, Ana Cruz, Antonia Darder, Phillip Wexler, Pepi Leistyna, Lilia Bartlolome, Jaime Grinberg, Elizabeth Quintero, Lourdes Soto, Dennis Carlson, Kathleen S. Berry, Peter Mayo, Gregory Martin, Curry Malott, Marc Pruyn, among many others.
Philosophical Principles
The philosophical principles of critical pedagogy are drawn from several conceptual categories including cultural politics, political economy, the historicity of knowledge, dialectical theory, ideology and critique, hegemony, resistance and counter-hegemony, praxis as well as dialogue and conscientization (Freire, 1970; Darder, A., Baltodano, M., and Torres, R. D., 2003).
Kincheloe (2004) asserts that "an elastic, ever-evolving set of concepts included in our evolving notion of critical pedagogy" (p. 50), including critical enlightenment, critical emancipation, the rejection of economic determinism, the critique of instrumental or technical rationality, the impact of desire, the concept of immanence, a reconceptualized critical theory of power: hegemony, a reconceptualized theory of power: ideology, a reconceptualized theory of power: linguistic/discursive power, focusing on the relationships among culture, power, and domination, the centrality of interpretation: critical hermeneutics, and the role of cultural pedagogy in critical theory (pp. 50-59).
Critical Questions
Critical Pedagogy is perhaps most notable in the field of educational theories as a body of literature that consistently problematizes knowledges, theories and beliefs established as "truth." Drawing from multiple philosophical orientations such as the dialogical theories posited by Bakhtin, Marcuse and Freire, as well as Michel Foucault's discussions in Power/Knowledge and The Archaelogy of Knowledge, critical pedagogues Henry Giroux and Peter McLaren question such truths and/or the pedagogical attempts in literature or the classroom to establish truths by asking "What are the values of public schools? Who dictates those values? How are those values reinforced?" (Darder, A., Baltodano, M., and Torres, R. D., 2003, p. 306). Leistyna and Woodrum (2003/Breaking Free) note the emergence of conservative technocratic models dominating mainstream education programs, conceptualizing teaching and learning as a discrete and scientific undertaking where the role of the teacher is reduced to passive, objective, efficient distributor of information who preps students for the work force rather than develop a critically conscious and socially responsible citizen (p. 1). From this purview, Leistyna and Woodrum propose several questions: Whose values, interpretations, and goals constitute the foundation of public education - the official core curriculum - and how is this body of knowledge which is often falsely presented as being objective and universal, imposed on the greater society? William Tierney (as cited by Leistyna and Woodrum) asks: How is knowledge conceived? Whose interests have been advanced by these forms of knowledges? How are some topics marginalized and other promoted? How has what we have defined as knowledge changed over time? How does the organization's culture promote or silence some individuals? How are some topics marginalized and others promoted?
Lilia Bartolome (2003/Breaking Free) argues for the infusion of a humanizing pedagogy that respects and uses the multiple perspectives, histories, and intelligences of students as an integral part of pedagogical practice. She poses two approaches to a humanizing pedagogical framework: culturally responsive education and strategic teaching which raise questions by her readers such as: How do students and teachers co-contribute to the oppressive conditions of subordinated students? How are students and/or teachers participating in the subordination of individuals within or beyond their larger learning communities? How might teacher educators address the needs of preservice teachers for teaching methods, but not reduce critical pedagogy to merely fragmented disconnected classroom strategies? (Freireson) In "A discourse not intended for her: Learning and teaching within patriarchy" published in the November 1986 issue of Harvard Educational Review, Madga Lewis and Roger Simon write "We must beware of discursive forms that colonize an silence bodies--all bodies. Forms of discourse that do not allow an answer to the question, "where is my body in that text?" silence us." Other questions follow these statements, such as: Does our teaching, our use of particular sets of practices and forms of discussion, subjugate? What can we offer that will not become a form of malefic generosity? What can we say together about teaching and learning within patriarchy that encourages a collective educative practice bound by a politics of solidarity rather than opposition? Returning to Giroux and McLaren's republished article in Breaking Free from Harvard Educational Review, "Teacher education and the politics of engagement: The case for democratic schooling," they write that "...the ability to demonstrate that teachers as "transformative intellectuals" can reclaim space in schools for the exercise of critical citizenship via ethical and political discourses that recast in liberatory terms the relationships among authority and teacher work and schooling and the social order" (p. 301).
Interconnections with other subject areas
Postcolonialism, Ethnic studies, Cultural studies, Adult education, Language development, Literacy, Media literacy, Urban education, Feminisms, Queer theory, Indigenous knowledges, Critical Multiculturalism, Social Studies, Music Education, Postmodernism, Critical Race Theory, Critical Constructivism, African American Studies, Phenomenology, Ontology, Epistemology, and Semiotics
Research Methods
Recommended reading for research methods in critical pedagogy:
Berry, K. S. & Kincheloe, J. L. (2004). Rigour and complexity in educational research. Columbus, OH: Open University Press.
Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The Sage handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Kincheloe, J. L. (2002). Teachers as researchers. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Mertens, D. (1998). Research methods in education and psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Saukko, P. (2003). Doing Research in Cultural Studies: An Introduction to Classical and New Methodological Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Steinberg, S. R. & Kincheloe, J. L. (1998). Students as researchers. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Tobin, K. & Kincheloe, J. L. (2006). Doing educational research: A handbook. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
Paulo Freire Centers
Austria: Paulo Freire Zentrum (Vienna)
Brazil: centro Paulo Freire estudos e pesquisas (Recife)
Canada: The Paulo and Nita Freire Critical Pedagogy Project (McGill University, Montreal); Paulo Freire Resource Collection (OISE, Toronto)
Finland: Paulo Freire Research Center (University of Tampere)
Germany: Paulo Freire Co-Operation in Europe
Italy: Instituto Paulo Freire
Malta: Paolo Freire Institute
South Africa: Paulo Freire Institute of South Africa (University of KwaZulu, Natal)
Spain: Institut Paulo Freire (Xátiva)
USA: Paulo Freire Democratic Project, (Chapman University, Orange, CA)
Additional groups engaged in critical pedagogical work
Australia
The Dulwich Centre Institute of Community Practice (Adelaide)
Brazil
Theatre of the Oppressed (Rio de Janeiro)
Canada
Cuba
CMMLK Centro Memorial Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. (Havana)
India
Awaz Foundation for Education (Lahore)
Japan
The Action Research Center for Human and Community Development (Kobe University)
Mexico
Cuernavaca Center for Intercultural Dialogue on Development (CCID)
The Center for Texas- Mexico Applied Research (Cuernavaca)
New Zealand
He Parekereke, Victoria University of Wellington
Thailand
The Children’s Village School- FFC
UNESCO
Management of Social Transformations (MOST) Programme
UNITED STATES
Alabama: UAB Project EXPORT Community Outreach Program, Minority Health and Research Center
Arkansas: OMNI Center for Peace, Justice, and Ecology
Arizona: Center for Latin American Studies (University of Arizona); Paulo Freire Freedom School (Tucson, AZ)
California: Center for Popular Education and Participatory Research (UC-Berkley); Center for Media Literacy, CML (Malibu); Center for Aids prevention Studies, UCSF (San Francisco); Peace & Justice Studies Association (San Francisco); The Tenderloin Reflection and Education Center (TREC) (San Francisco); Concern America: An International Development and Refugee Aid Organization (Santa Ana)
Colorado: Center for Teaching and Learning, Grant 20 K (University of Denver); Lory Student Center, Colorado State University (Fort Collins)
Connecticut: Yale University School of Nursing; Center for Interdisciplinary Research on AIDS
Delaware: Disaster Research Center (University of Delaware)
Illinois: Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos Puerto Rican High School and the Family Learning Center; Center on Democracy in a Multiracial Society (University of Illinois); Paulo Freire Family Center (Chicago, IL.); Instituto del Progreso Latino; Center for Women’s InterCultural Leadership (St. Mary’s College)
Indiana: The Life and Thought of Paulo Freire: Insights for Theological Education (Wabash Center); Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture, IUPUI;
Louisiana: SAC- Students at the Center
Massachusetts: ARHS Parent Center (Amherst); The Hood Children's Literacy Project, Lesley University (Cambridge); Afro-Nets; African Networks for Health Research and Development (Watertown)
Michigan: The Centro Obrero (Detroit Workers' Center, CO)
Minnesota: Paulo Freire International Community Service Grant (University of Minnesota)
North Dakota: Beyond Horizons: Nursing School
Nebraska: Creighton Center for Service and Justice (Creighton University)
New Jersey: Teaching and Learning Resource Center (Montclair State University)
New York: Center for Economic and Social Rights: Social Justice through Human Rights (Brooklyn); Women’s Institute for Social Transformation (WIST); NY Marxist Center (New York); Participatory Action Research Collective (CUNY, New York); The Center for Educational Outreach and Innovation, Teachers College (Columbia University); The School of Professional Studies (CUNY, New York)
Oregon: The Center for Teaching and Learning (Western Oregon University)
Pennsylvania: Center for Science in Society (Bryn Mawr College); The Center for Vision and Values (Grove City); Center for Women Studies (Penn Sate University); Freire Charter School (Philadelphia, PA)
Tennessee: Highlander Research and Education Center
Virginia: The Women’s Center at Virginia Tech
Washington: Mandala Center For Change
Wisconsin: Havens Center for the Study of Social Structure and Social Change (University of Wisconsin)
Journals
The International Journal of Critical Pedagogy
Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education
Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education is an academic forum for the study of teaching and pedagogy that focuses on the relationship between education and its socio-cultural context. Drawing upon a variety of contextualizing disciplines including cultural studies, curriculum theorizing, feminist studies, the social foundations of education, critical pedagogy, multi/interculturalism, queer theory, and symbolic interactionism, Taboo is grounded on the notion of "radical contextual-ization." The journal encourages papers from a wide range of contributors who work within these general areas. As its title suggests, Taboo seeks compelling and contro-versial submissions. Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education is published twice a year, Spring-Summer and Fall-Winter, by Caddo Gap Press. It was originally created by Peter Lang Publishers as a companion journal for Counterpoints: Studies in the Postmodern Theory of Education, Series Editors, Joe Kincheloe and Shirley Steinberg, and appeared in that form for Volumes 1-3, 1985-1987. Caddo Gap Press acquired the journal in 1999 and resumed publication with Volume 4 in 2000. The annual subscription rate for individuals is $50 US and for institutions is $100 US; for addresses outside the United States add $30 per year. Single issues are available for $30 each. Subscriptions orders should be addressed and payable to Caddo Gap Press, 3145 Geary Boulevard PMB 275, San Francisco, California, 94118, USA. Contributors are asked to send manuscripts electronically. For questions of style refer to either The Chicago Manual of Style (for essay or discriptive articles) or the APA (for research articles). Editorial preferences for Taboo will consider author input. We suggest that contributors retain one copy of the manuscript as submissions will not be returned. Upon acceptance of an article by the journal the author(s) will be asked to transfer copyright of the article to Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education. The transfer will ensure the widest possible dissemination of information. Articles, contributions and editorial correspondence should be sent electronically to Dr. Shirley R. Steinberg, Senior Editor, Taboo: The Journal of Culture and Education at msgramsci@aol.com or shirley.steinberg@mcgill.ca
Vocations and Learning: Studies in vocational and professional education
Vocations and Learning: Studies in Vocational and Professional Education provides an international forum for papers on the broad field of vocational learning, across a range of settings: vocational colleges, schools, universities, workplaces, domestic environments, voluntary bodies, and more. Coverage includes such topics as curriculum and pedagogy practices for vocational learning; the role and nature of knowledge in vocational learning; the relationship between context and learning in vocational settings; analyses of instructional practice and policy in vocational learning and education; studies of teaching and learning in vocational education; and the relationships between vocational learning and economic imperatives, and the practices and policies of national and trans-national agencies. This peer-reviewed journal aims to enhance the contribution of research and scholarship to vocational education policy and practice, and also to inspire new research in this diverse field.
Concepts, Terms, and Language of Critical Pedagogy
From Breaking free: The transformative power of critical pedagogy (Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A., and Sherblom, S. A., 1996):
Americanization • Banking notion of education • Commodification • Counter-discourse (countervailing ideologies, counter-hegemonic practices) • Critical thinking (critical consciousness, critical inquiry) • Culture (cultural politics) • Cultural capital • Cultural reproduction • Cultural worker • Deconstruction • Deficit model • Dialectics • Dialogue • Discourse • Domesticate • Dominant ideologies • Essentialism • False consciousness • Foundationalism • Frankfurt School • Grand, totalizing, and master narratives • Hegemony • Hermeneutics • Hidden curriculum • Historical amnesia • Internalized oppression • Logocentricism/Cartesian logic • Manufacture consent • Marginalize • Meritocracy • Meta-narrative • Modernity • Object/subject of history • Political awareness/clarity • Positionality (location, subject position, situated) • Positivism • Postcolonialism • Postmodernity/modernity • Poststructuralism • Praxis • Problematize • Public sphere • Reductionistic • Representational politics • Resistance/oppositional identity • Sociohistorical • Subjectivity • Subordinated cultures • Technocratic (technicians/technicists) • Telecratic • Text • Voice
From Chapter 1 of The Critical Pedagogy Reader (Darder, A., Baltodano, M., and Torres, R. D., 2003):
Democratic schooling • Radical educators • Impact of capitalism • Transformative social action • Oppressed communities • Creative intelligence (Dewey) • Sociopolitical/economic forces • Individual, social and/or cooperative intelligence • Language of possibility • Structures of oppression at work • Dispossessed populations • Material conditions and social consequences of poverty and racism • Human oppression • Human, spiritual, and political engagement of questions of education • Reconfiguration of power relations in schooling • Persistent critique of capitalism • Political struggles against exploitation and domination • Social agency, voice, and democratic participation • Consciousness, domination, resistance • Praxis • Rejection of fascism • Contradictory consciousness • Asymmetrical relations of power • Emancipatory culture of schooling • Teachers as humanized social and cultural agents • Legitimate knowledge • Education of disenfranchised students • Economic interests of the marketplace • Ideology • Hegemony • Counter-hegemony • Praxis • Conscientization • Identity politics • All-consuming metanarratives • Intellectual act of border crossing • Cultural hybridity • Racialized subjects • Economic determinism and reductionism • Gendered and racialized class relations • Golboalization • Critical social action among subordinated groups • Competency / competent teacher / competent student / competently teach the official transcript • Politics of solidarity
From Critical Pedagogy: A Primer (Kincheloe, 2004):
Action research • Agency • Determinism • Dialectical authority • Hyperrationalization • Ideologies • Technicalization • Zeitgeist • Bourgeois • Bricolage • Cultural studies • Culture of Positivism • Emancipatory literacy • Normative hermeneutics • Postdiscourses • Poststructuralism • Ponunciamentos of “Endings” • Semioticians • Social Darwinism • Deskilling teachers • Praxis • Thing-in-itself • Constructivist analysis • Enactivism • Regimes of truth • Normal science of a paradigm
From Critical Constructivism Primer (Kincheloe, 2005):
Assimilation-Accommodation Dyad • Autopoesis • Blue knowledge • Cartesian-Newtonian-Baconian Modernism • Cartesianism • Crazy wisdom • Complexity theory • Deconstruction • Dialectics • Discourse analysis • Dominant power bloc • Epistemology • Essentialism • Ethnography • Formal level of cognition • Hegemonic • Hermeneutic circle • Historicity • Hyperreality • Instrumental rationality • Logocentrism • Nagarjuna • Neo-imperialist • Objectivism • Ontology • Positivism • Postformal thinking • Postformalism • Poststructuralist feminism • Semiotics • Structural coupling • Techno-power
References
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Apple, M. (1999). Power, meaning, and identity. New York: Peter Lang.
Beck-Gernsheim, E., Butler, J. & Puigvert, L. (2003). Women and social transformation. New York: Peter Lang.
Bottomore, T. (1984). The Frankfurt School. London: Tavistock.
Flecha, R., Gomez, J., and Puigvert, L. (2003). Contemporary sociological theory. New York: Peter Lang.
Freire, P. and Macedo, D. (1999). A dialogue: Culture, language, and race. In Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A., and Sherblom, S. A. (Eds.) Breaking free: The transformative power of critical pedagogy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review. 199-228.
Gall, J., Gall, M., and Borg, W. (1999). Applying educational research: A practical guide. New York: Longman.
Gibson, R. (1986). Critical theory and education. London: Hodder and Strougton.
Giroux, H. (1983). Theory and resistance in education. South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin & Garvey.
Giroux, H. (1997). Pedagogy and the politics of hope: Theory, culture, and schooling. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Held, D. (1980). Introduction to Critical Theory: Horkheimer to Habermas. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Jay, M. (1973). The dialectical imagination: A history of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research 1923-1950. Boston: Little, Brown.
Kellner, D. (1989). Critical Theory, Marxism, and Modernity. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kincheloe, J. L. (2001). Getting beyond the facts: Teaching social studies/social sciences in the twenty-first century, 2/e. New York: Peter Lang.
Kincheloe, J. L. (2004). Critical Pedagogy: A Primer. New York: Peter Lang.
Kincheloe, J. L. (2005). Critical Constructivism: A Primer. New York: Peter Lang.
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Leistyna, P. & Woodrum, A. (1999). Context and Culture: What Is Critical Pedagogy? In Leistyna, P., Woodrum, A., and Sherblom, S. A. (Eds.) Breaking free: The transformative power of critical pedagogy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Educational Review. 1-11.
Marcuse, H. (1955). Eros and civilization. Boston: Beacon Press.
Marcuse, H. (1969). Repressive tolerance. In R. P. Wolff, B. Moor, Jr., and H. Marcuse (Eds.) A critique of pure tolerance. Boston: Beacon Press.
McLaren, P. (1997). Revolutionary multiculturalism: Pedagogies of dissent for the new millenium. Boulder, CO: Westivew.
McLaren, P. and Kincheloe, J.L. (eds). (2007). Critical Pedagogy: Where are we now? New York: Peter Lang.
Mertens, D. (1998). Research methods in education and psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Steinberg, S. R. (2007). Preface: Where are we now? In McLaren, P. & Kincheloe, J. L. (Eds.) Critical Pedagogy: Where are we now? New York: Peter Lang. ix-x.
Tobin, K. & Kincheloe, J. L. (2006). Doing educational research: A handbook. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
